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Appendix 3

SCAR Proposal, August 1996

A SCAR-GLOCHANT proposal for a workshop initiative on the Late Quaternary Sedimentary
Record of the Antarctic Ice Margin Evolution (ANTIME)

Executive Summary

It was the original intention of SCAR-GLOCHANT in 1991 to establish a project on Palaeoenvironments from Antarctic ice cores and the sedimentary record. This has partially been achieved through the establishment of a programme on Palaeoenvironments for Ice Cores (PICE). PICE has been approved by the IGBP PAGES SSC and is co-sponsored by GLOCHANT and PAGES. This proposal outlines the need to work towards the establishment of a sister programme to study the record of palaeo-environmental changes contained in the Late Quaternary Antarctic sedimentary record (last 250,000 years), in the marine, coastal, lacustrine, and glacial environments. The Antarctic sedimentary record has already yielded high-resolution information on palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic changes, particularly on ice marginal and outlet glacier fluctuations and in lacustrine and marine ecology and biogeochemistry. A coordinated SCAR initiative on circumpolar palaeoenvironmental research, particularly a detailed component on the last 20,000 years, including the very high-resolution Holocene records, would provide a solid basis for the understanding of present and future variability in the Antarctic, when combined with the ice-core records. It is important that the palaeoenvironmental data from ice cores and the sedimentary record be correlated to allow the optimum understanding of past circumpolar changes. It is recommended that the ANTIME initiative focuses on two streams: Stream 1 (last 20,000 years) on the last deglaciation and interglacial environmental, climatic, and ice-sheet variability; and Stream 2 (last 250,000) on the environmental, climatic, and ice-sheet response to glacial-interglacial cycles. These are slightly different from the PAGES timescales, but are considered to be more appropriate to circumpolar studies.

The proposed ANTIME initiative would first involve the convening of an international workshop for SCAR palaeoenvironmental scientists. It is the intention to obtain joint sponsorship of this workshop with PAGES. The workshop would address the status of knowledge in the following key topics:

This workshop is proposed to take place in Hobart, in July, 1997, in conjunction with the Symposium on Antarctica and Global Change. The workshop would allow a review of existing SCAR national programmes and the status of current knowledge on the Late Quaternary environmental change within the Antarctic region. It will also facilitate the identification of priority geographic regions and field and analysis tasks, which would benefit from a multi-national approach. The workshop is seen as a first step in the correlation of circum-Antarctic palaeoenvironmental records from ice cores and the sedimentary record, which is required to understand past circumpolar changes.

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Introduction

The physical and dynamical processes controlling the nature of the Antarctic ice sheet and the surrounding oceans have been found to be highly variable, both geographically and temporally, on interannual to interdecadal timescales. Because of this large background variability and because instrumental records span such a short time span, it is difficult to predict the responses of the ice sheet to future forcings, such as global warming. Attempts to determine this variability on century to millennial time scales by medium depth ice-core drilling and analysis have been only partially successful. Ice cores have provided detailed historical information on climatic variability, with respect to changes in temperature, relative humidity, moisture source, and atmospheric circulation. They cover periods from the last few hundred years to the last 10,000 years, at Law Dome and Taylor Dome, East Antarctica, and Dyer Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula, and over the past ~250,000 years at Vostok and Dome C, in the East Antarctic interior. The new Law Dome summit core may provide a detailed climatic record over the Holocene and perhaps the Late Pleistocene transition, whilst the proposed Siple Dome and Byrd Basin cores may also provide a detailed Holocene climatic and late glacial history of the West Antarctic ice sheet. In addition, the present and proposed deep drilling activities at Dome C and Dronning Maud Land (EPICA) and Dome Fuji (Japan), will result in new ice-core records covering multiple glacial-interglacial cycles. However, the ice-coring projects to date have experienced significant difficulties in absolute dating and in providing temporal data on changes in ice-sheet elevation and fluctuations in ice dynamics during the Holocene and Late Pleistocene. This information is vital if we are to understand the response of the ice sheet to climatic variability as well as other forcing mechanisms (ie. rising sea-level and deformation of the bed on which the ice sheet rests).

This difficulty might be overcome by utilising the geological record. The Antarctic sedimentary record in the marine, coastal, lacustrine, and glacial environments has already yielded high-resolution information on palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic changes, particularly on ice marginal and outlet glacier fluctuations and in lacustrine and marine ecology and biogeochemistry. We believe that a coordinated SCAR initiative on circumpolar palaeoenvironmental research, focussed on the Late Quaternary (last 250,000 years) Antarctic sedimentary record, particularly a detailed component on the last 20,000 years, including the very high-resolution Holocene records, would provide a solid basis for the understanding of present and future variability in the Antarctic, when combined with the ice-core records.

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Proposed ANTIME Initiative

SCAR-GLOCHANT has developed a joint initiative with IGBP-PAGES on coordinating Antarctic ice-core drilling and the analysis of ice-core records, known as 'Palaeoenvironments from Ice Cores' (PICE). The PICE science plan is entitled, "An international strategy for ice-core drilling in Antarctica -- Reducing uncertainty in global environmental change". PICE will investigate ice-sheet palaeoenvironments on two time scales, Stream 1 (the last 2,000 years), and Stream 2 (the last 250,000 years). It was the original intention of SCAR-GLOCHANT in 1991 to also develop a sister project on Palaeoenvironments from the Antarctic sedimentary record. However, this has not been initiated to date, and this proposal outlines the need and context for such a project and probable linkages or joint sponsorship from other organisations such as the IGBP-PAGES.

At present, Quaternary research is conducted around the Antarctic ice margin by scientists from a number of nations. Quaternary sequences have been cored on the continental shelf by marine geological programmes and have been partially recorded by seismic surveys conducted by the SCAR-ANTOSTRAT programme, although the later surveys were low resolution and did not resolve the younger Quaternary strata. However, most of the Late Quaternary and Holocene research has been focused on the inner continental shelf, in the coastal zone in fjords and beach sequences, and in the vicinity of the terrestrial ice margin and adjacent lakes. As with the GLOCHANT-PAGES programme on ice coring, there is a strong need to coordinate the international research on the variability and evolution of the Antarctic ice margin to maximise the international resources and target the Antarctic areas of most mutual interest. A coordinated effort would allow international resources to be available for specific regional projects and allow for efficient exchange and correlation of findings between the sedimentary and ice-core science communities. Such an exchange of data and correlation of findings could be a major focus for a GLOCHANT/PAGES initiative. It is also important to recognise that a multi-disciplinary approach including geology, glaciology, chemistry, and biology is required to develop fully a comprehensive palaeoenvironmental history.

We propose that GLOCHANT and the Working Groups on Geology and Solid Earth Geophysics jointly develop a SCAR initiative to coordinate research on the Late Quaternary Antarctic sedimentary record, which we refer to at this stage as ANTIME (Antarctic Ice Margin Evolution). We envisage that ANTIME together with the ice-core project will form the SCAR contribution to PAGES and that it will complement the PAGES/SCOR IMAGES transects in the circum-Antarctic regions. We are investigating a joint sponsorship of the initiative with the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA) and whether some aspects may contribute to the International Geological Correlation Project (IGCP). There is the potential for a strong linkage between ANTIME and the SCAR EASIZ programme with respect to the post-glacial evolution of the continental shelf, coastal zone, and the coupled ecosystem development.

A priority for ANTIME is the drilling and retrieval of a long continuous core that spans at least the last 250,000 years. Such a core would provide the data source necessary to correlate and reconcile the ice sheet and environmental history with that determined from the continental shelf and deep ocean. A second priority for ANTIME is to plan for the retrieval of a number of cores that span the Holocene from geographically widespread locations in the vicinity of outlet glaciers and ice shelves around Antarctica. These are required to resolve high-resolution palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic records, which are comparable to the younger ice-core records. On the basis of these priorities it is recommended that the ANTIME project focus on two streams: Stream 1 (last 20,000 years) on the last deglaciation and interglacial environmental, climatic, and ice-sheet variability; and Stream 2 (last 250,000) on the environmental, climatic, and ice-sheet response to glacial-interglacial cycles. These are slightly different from the PAGES timescales but are considered to be more appropriate to circumpolar studies.

It is proposed to commence this initiative by organising a SCAR sponsored International Workshop, at Hobart in 1997, in conjunction with the Symposium on Antarctic and Global Change, to: discuss the state-of-the-art palaeoenvironmental data on the Late Quaternary in Antarctica; plan future multi-national field programmes; and plan for the coordination of technology and stratigraphic correlations. It is intended that representatives from all the marine and glacial geological programmes in SCAR countries should be invited to the proposed workshop, together with representatives from PAGES. The key themes for the workshop are outlined below.

Key Themes for the ANTIME Initiative

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1. The Extent, Timing and Regional Differences of the Last Glacial Maximum in Antarctica

Our present state of knowledge on the timing of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in Antarctica is scant and contradictory. Investigations of the marine sedimentary record on the continental shelf in East Antarctica and in the Weddell and Ross Seas suggest that the ice sheet may have been grounded near the continental shelf break sometime during the last glacial cycle. The East Antarctic onshore geologic record of isostatic and relative sea-level changes and glacial fluctuations indicates that a much smaller ice-sheet expansion occurred at the time of the Northern Hemisphere (LGM) around 18,000 to 20,000 yr B.P. (Colhoun et al., 1992). In fact, the maximum post-glacial emergence is an order of magnitude less than in the Arctic since the LGM. The marine evidence from the western Ross Embayment suggests that at 18,000 yr B.P. the grounded Ross Ice Sheet possibly extended only onto the middle shelf near Coulman Island (Licht, 1996). More cores are required in the central and eastern Ross Sea to confirm this. A fundamental question remains: were the Antarctic ice sheets at their maxima during the Northern Hemisphere LGM or at some earlier time in the last glacial cycle? Were the glacial maxima of the East Antarctic and West Antarctic Ice Sheets in phase or were they regionally offset? These are important gaps in our knowledge and understanding of the Antarctic response to climatic and sea-level forcings. This is also a crucial question for the resolution of global sea-level fluctuations and the calibration of ice-sheet models such as that of (Huybrechts, 1992) that are used to predict the future response of the ice sheets to global warming. There are two opposing views on the sea-level contribution of Antarctica during the LGM: (Colhoun et al., 1992) presented the minimum estimate of between 2.5 and 5m, which was biased towards the East Antarctic raised beach evidence, whereas Tushingham and Peltier (1991) and Nakada and Lambeck (1988) apply a much larger sea-level contribution of 25m and 35 m, respectively, in their global relative sea-level modelling experiments.

To rectify these gaps and address these divergent views, it is necessary to broaden the geographic coverage; this, in turn, requires international participation in onshore and marine programmes. A SCAR initiative would provide the opportunity for international cooperation in marine geological and geophysical surveys: on the East Antarctic shelf basins, including, the Mertz-Ninnis Trough, the Totten Trough, Prydz Bay, Lutzow-Holm Bay, and the Rennick Trough; in the Ross Sea; in West Antarctica at Pine Island Bay and along the west coast of Graham Land; and on the South Orkney Plateau. An international effort focusing on high-resolution seismic surveys using a sparker and 3.5 kHz equipment is required, together with the drilling of long sediment cores and more detailed work on the recognition of glaciomarine, iceberg turbate, and subglacial diamicton facies transitions. The ANTOSTRAT project has led to the collection and establishment of a detailed seismic library on the continental shelf stratigraphy. However, the Late Quaternary is not well represented because it is a shallow sequence and is often located in the bubble pulse of the ANTOSTRAT seismic surveys, which were optimised for the earlier Cenozoic record.

It will be necessary to focus onshore studies of Late Quaternary glacial geology, palaeobiology, and geochemistry in the priority regions adjacent to high-resolution seismic surveys and marine coring sites, to enable correlations to be made and to gain a better understanding of the nature and mechanisms of palaeo-environmental change. Regional analysis of the onshore and offshore sedimentary records, together with data on postglacial relative sea-level change and isostatic rebound, will enable the nature and extent of the coastal ice-sheet expansion to be established. It is necessary to correlate the palaeo-geography and timing of the coastal ice-sheet expansion during the last glacial cycle with the marine geological evidence, to understand the response of the Antarctic drainage basins to climatic and sea-level change.

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2. What Rapid or Episodic Events Occurred during the Late Quaternary?

The emerging bipolar data sets are suggesting that rapid change and episodic events have characterised the Late Quaternary environment, rather than slow transformations from interglacial to glacial climates. These events have been associated with a rapid response of the polar ice sheets to abrupt climatic changes over much shorter intervals than the orbitally modulated 20 kyr to 100 kyr Milankovitch insolation cycles and include:

However, we do not know how many, if any, of these episodic and rapid events occurred in mainland Antarctica, nor do we know whether they are triggered by global forcings. If the latter is the case, then rapid or episodic changes, such as those associated with the peak warming of the Last Interglacial (LIG), during oxygen isotope Stage 5e (119,000 to 132,000 yr B.P.), may be typical of the type of change we can expect from future global change. Consequently, it is important that we gain a complete understanding of the nature of these past changes. Investigation and recognition of rapid changes and episodic events in the Antarctic stratigraphic record may make it possible to determine their forcings and to discriminate between events on different time scales. The US West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) history and dynamics project on climatic, sea-level, and glaciological interactions includes a significant effort to resolve some of the regional issues in West Antarctica, including the Ross Sea. However, a coordinated effort in West and East Antarctica is required to address both the regional and bipolar climatic and sea-level histories. This is a large undertaking and would significantly benefit from a coordinated multinational effort amongst SCAR countries.

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3. What are the Key Forcings and Feedbacks that Influence the Retreat and Re-advance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet?

The major physical change in the Antarctic environment is the fluctuation in geographic extent of the Antarctic ice-sheet margin between glacial and interglacial periods. However, oscillations in the position of the margin, particularly in West Antarctica and along the deep marine embayments in East Antarctica, also likely occurred within the interglacial periods (such as the suggested outlet glacier advance during the Mid-Holocene) and their forcings and response are equally important to resolve.

We know little of the forcing mechanisms that control the retreat, readvance, and stability of the Antarctic ice sheets. It is imperative that we understand these mechanisms if we are going to be able to predict the response of the ice sheet to future global warming. These mechanisms include: eustatic sea-level changes, warm deepwater incursions on the shelf, isostatic loading and unloading in equilibrium or disequilibrium with the ice-sheet status, glacial bed conditions and deformation, ocean circulation, and climatic changes. Only scant evidence for the timing of the post-glacial retreat, from the emergence of coastal bedrock and Holocene raised marine shorelines, has been collected at present. However, these data suggest that the isostatic response around Antarctica differed widely between regions and that the drainage basins may have responded to different forcings.

We need to develop an understanding of the regional evidence, style, rates, extent, and timing of post-glacial retreat. It is important to approach this problem by focusing on:

Advance and retreat of the ice sheet and ice shelf have undoubtedly had a significant influence on Antarctic bottom water production. Various workers have attempted to examine the history of Antarctic bottom water by examining the deep sea record, but the results have been mixed. Ledbetter and Ciesielski (1986) argued that Antarctic bottom water production is greatest during glacial maxima, whereas Pudsey (1992) concluded that Antarctic bottom water production decreases during glacial maxima. Ultimately, the linkage between Antarctic bottom water production and glacial conditions on the continent awaits a better understanding of ice-sheet/ice-shelf expansion and contractions during the last few glacial cycles. In this way, ANTIME has a potential contribution to the history of Antarctic bottom water production and a linkage with deep- sea geological investigations undertaken by the IMAGES programme in the Southern Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean.

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4. What Changes in the Ice Shelves and Outlet Glaciers have Occurred during the Holocene?

Present data suggest that the ice shelves and outlet glaciers have fluctuated during the Holocene and that these fluctuations have been in response to climatic and oceanic circulation changes. However, little is known of the Holocene climatic record in Antarctica. Evidence from deep ice cores indicates that a climatic optimum occurred during the early Holocene at 11,000 to 9,000 yr B.P., which is significantly earlier than the Mid-Holocene optimum generally recorded at mid- to low-latitude sites. Did the polar regions lead the climatic amelioration during the Holocene? Howard and Prell (1992) presented palaeooceanographic evidence from the southern Indian Ocean that points to a similar climatic optimum in the early parts of interglacial stages 11, 9, 7, and 5.

How have the Antarctic ice sheet, outlet glaciers, and ice shelves responded to small climatic fluctuations during the Holocene. Do our modern observations of ice behaviour reflect these past, rather than modern, climatic fluctuations? The marine sedimentary record is proving to be an important source of data on Holocene climatic change. This has largely been due to the significant advancement in the high-resolution dating of Holocene deposits using AMS 14C techniques and to the identification of inner shelf and fiord locations with high sedimentation rates, which have made it possible to define decadal to century scale variability, such as the 200-yr cycles interpreted in the Antarctic Peninsula sediments (Domack, 1993; Leventer, In press).

Detailed onshore geological studies have demonstrated that the ice margin and outlet glaciers have fluctuated on the timescales of 10 to 1,000 years during the Holocene in response to changes in mass balance. Similarly, direct observations of the modern ice grounding zones using submersible remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are allowing a picture to develop on the physical, sedimentological and oceanographic processes controlling the location of the ice margin. (Powell pers. comm., 1996) has reported that the sedimentology, sea floor morphology, and epibenthic communities in the McMurdo Sound area all indicate that the major part of the East Antarctic Mackay Glacier grounding line has retreated this century. This retreat has occurred despite rapid sedimentation of glacially transported debris at the grounding line. Antarctic bottom water production displays strong regional differences, especially between the Weddell and Ross sea regions. Observations show that most of the bottom water production takes place in the Weddell Sea, in part due to the interaction between the floating ice shelf and the underlying sea water (Foldvik and Gammelsrod, 1988). The reason for this unexpected difference between the Ross and Weddell Sea regions may be attributed to the different directions of the surface wind field in these regions. The off-shelf wind field in the Ross Sea leads to a compensating flow of warm water onto the continental shelf that may increase the melting near the grounding line, reduce the density of the resulting ice-shelf water and hence reduce the production of bottom water. The sedimentary record can provide boundary conditions on the history of Antarctic ice-shelf bottom water production, the history of shelf break mixing, and the occurrence of coastal and offshore polynyas.

It is difficult to draw continent-wide conclusions from regional ice-shelf and outlet-glacier fluctuations, particularly in regard to the climatic and oceanographic forcings, especially because the East and West Antarctic ice sheets may have responded independently. Consequently, a coordinated international effort is required to ensure a focused and representative regional coverage. Suitable sites include:

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5. Technology Coordination

Our knowledge of past glacial and climatic events would be enhanced if technological aspects could be coordinated amongst SCAR nations. The following aspects could be addressed in the proposed SCAR international workshop:

6. Correlation of Late Quaternary Antarctic Environmental History and Deep-ocean Sedimentary Records

A key need for the understanding of the relationships between Antarctic glacial history and the record of past global change is for nearshore sedimentary records to be tied to continuous, well-dated, offshore sections. The advantage of this type of integrated approach is that it would maximise the benefits and cover for the shortcomings of both types of sequences. The offshore drilling and coring targets currently under consideration by ODP and IMAGES provide continuous Neogene records to which a battery of proven chronostratigraphic tools can be applied, including magneto- and biostratigraphy and orbital tuning of high-resolution isotopic, lithostratigraphic, and physical properties measurements of whole cores and discrete samples. In the late Quaternary, these types of paleoceanographic records provide important stratigraphic tiepoints between marine and ice-core chronologies. However, the types of far-field measurements available from pelagic sediment sections only provide indirect indicators of the behaviour of the Antarctic ice sheets. For example, oxygen isotopic variations interpreted as records of global ice volume do not resolve the locations and variability of particular ice masses. Antarctic margin sequences, for their parts, are often devoid of the biogenic carbonate needed for stable isotopic measurements and have not provided easily interpretable palaeomagnetic records (notable exceptions include the Antarctic margin records of Grobe and Mackensen (1992). Similarly, despite several DSDP/ODP legs to Antarctic margin targets, much work remains to be done to tie high-latitude siliceous biostratigraphies into low-latitude, largely calcareous-based biostratigraphic schemes. A particularly glaring need is for nearshore-offshore transects in the Pacific Sector of the Antarctic. Most of the paleoceanographic community's understanding of the Southern Ocean comes from the Atlantic (eg. Charles and Fairbanks, 1992) and Indian (eg. Howard and Prell, 1992) Sectors and they assume that these histories characterise the overall Southern Ocean response to a (presumed) essentially Northern Hemisphere forcing (orbital forcing and North Atlantic Deep Water variability). The Southern Ocean may show considerable regional variability, especially if the near-field effects of ice-sheet dynamics play an important role in Southern Ocean circulation (a Southern Hemisphere counterpoint to the Heinrich events of the North Atlantic). In this case the East and West Antarctic ice sheets may behave quite differently and independently and drive sector-scale variability in the flux of meltwater and ice-rafted debris.

It is proposed that a direct linkage between the SCAR ANTIME initiative and the IMAGES and ODP programmes will optimise the possibilities for the correlation of the Antarctic and deep Southern Ocean sedimentary records. This will form a major SCAR contribution to the IGBP PAGES programme.

This draft proposal was prepared by:

Dr I D Goodwin, SCAR Global Change Programme Coordinator, Antarctic CRC, Hobart

with input from a number of scientists including;

Professor J B Anderson, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Rice University, Houston, Texas

Professor E Domack, Hamilton College, New York, USA,

Professor R Gersonde, Alfred Wegner Institut für Polar und Meeresforschung, Bremmerhaven, Germany

Dr W Howard, Antarctic CRC, Hobart, Australia

Dr P O'Brien, AGSO and Antarctic CRC, Canberra, Australia

Dr P Berkman, Byrd Polar Research Center, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA

Professor C Schlüchter, Geologisches Institut der Universitat Bern, Switzerland

Professor A Foldvik, Geofysisk Institutt, Universitetet I Bergen, Bergen, Norway,

Dr R Powell, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, USA

9th August, 1996

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References

Charles, C D, and Fairbanks, R G. (1992). Evidence from Southern Ocean sediments for the effect of North Atlantic deep-water flux on climate. Nature 355, 416-419.

Colhoun, E A, Mabin, M C G, Adamson, D A, and Kirk, R M. (1992). Antarctic ice volume and contribution to sea-level fall at 20,000 yr. B.P. from raised beaches. Nature 358, 316-319.

Domack, E W, Mashiotta, T A, Ishman, S E, and Burkley, L A. (1993). 300-year cyclicity in organic matter preservation in Antarctic fjord sediments. In "The Antarctic Paleoenvironment: A Perspective on Global Change." (J Kennett and D Warnke, Eds.), pp. 262-272. American Geophysical Union.

Foldvik, A, and Gammelsrod, T. (1988). Notes on Southern Ocean hydrography, sea ice and bottom water formation. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 67, 3-17.

Grobe, H, and Mackensen, A. (1992). Late Quaternary climatic cycles as recorded in sediments from the Antarctic continental margin. In "The Antarctic Environment: A perspective on global change." (J P Kennett and D. Warnke, Eds.), pp. 349-376. Antarctic Research Series. American Geophysical Union.

Huybrechts, P. (1992). The Antarctic ice sheet and environmental change: a three-dimensional modelling study. Alfred-Wegener-Institut für Polar und Meersforschung, Bremerhaven.

Ledbetter, M T, and Ciesielski (1986). Post-Miocene disconformities and palaeoceanography in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 52, 3-4, 185-214.

Leventer, A, Domack, E W, Ishman, S E, Brachfield, S, McClennen, C E, and Manley, P. (In press). 200-300 year productivity cycles in the Antarctic Peninsula region: understanding linkages among the sun, atmosphere, oceans, sea-ice, and biota. GSA Bulletin.

Licht, K J, Jennings, A E, Andrews, J T, and Williams, K M. (1996). Chronology of late Wisconsin ice retreat from the western Ross Sea. Geology 24, 223-226.

Nakada, M, and Lambeck, K. (1988). The melting history of the Late Pleistocene Antarctic ice sheet. Nature 333, 36-40.

Pudsey, C J. (1992). Late Quaternary changes in Antarctic bottom water velocity inferred from sediment grain size in the northern Weddell Sea. Marine Geology 107, 1-2, 9-33.

Tushingham, A M, and Peltier, W R. (1991). Ice 3G: A new global model of Late Pleistocene deglaciation based upon geophysical predictions of post glacial relative sea-level change. Journal of Geophysical Research 96, 4497-4523.

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 List of Acronyms

ANTIME Antarctic Ice Margin Evolution (SCAR)
ANTOSTRAT Antarctic Offshore Stratigraphy (SCAR)
DSDP Deep Sea Drilling Program
EPICA European Programme for Ice Coring in Antarctica
GLOCHANT Group of Specialists on Global Change and the Antarctic (SCAR)
IGCP International Geological Correlation Project (IUGS/UNESCO)
IMAGES International Marine Global Change Study (SCOR/PAGES)
INQUA International Union for Quaternary Research (ICSU)
ODP Ocean Drilling Program
PAGES Past Global Changes (IGBP)
PICE Palaeoenvironments from Ice Cores (SCAR-GLOCHANT)
WAIS West Antarctic Ice Sheet